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Radioactive Waste Classification

Radioactive waste exhibits a wide range of chemical, physical and radiological characteristics. These characteristics determine how waste is treated, packaged and ultimately managed. In practice, radioactive waste is classified into five main categories.

Categories of Radioactive Waste

In France, radioactive waste is classified into five categories according to several criteria, including its level of radioactivity and its lifetime. Each category is associated with a management solution adapted to its characteristics.

Understanding the Different Types of Radioactive Waste

Radioactive waste is highly diverse. Most waste contains the same types of chemical or radioactive substances, but in varying quantities. Depending on its composition, waste may therefore present different levels of hazard over different periods of time.

To ensure the safest and most appropriate management, waste is grouped into categories sharing similar characteristics.

In France, this classification is primarily based on two parameters, which give each waste category its name:

  • Radioactivity level: depending on the quantity and nature of the radioactive substances they contain, waste can be classified as very low-level, low-level, intermediate-level or high-level waste.
  • Lifetime: this depends on how long the radioactive substances contained in the waste remain radioactive. All radioactive waste contains a mixture of short-lived radionuclides (half-life ≤ 31 years) and long-lived radionuclides (half-life > 31 years). For simplicity, waste containing mainly short-lived radionuclides is referred to as short-lived waste, while waste containing mainly long-lived radionuclides is referred to as long-lived waste.

Classifying Radioactive Waste

In France, radioactive waste is divided into six categories:

  1. Very Short-Lived Waste (VSL)
  2. Very Low-Level Waste (VLLW)
  3. Low- and Intermediate-Level Short-Lived Waste (LILW-SL)
  4. Low-Level Long-Lived Waste (LLW-LL)
  5. Intermediate-Level Long-Lived Waste (ILW-LL)
  6. High-Level Waste (HLW)

Very Low-Level Waste (VLLW)

The radioactivity of Very Low-Level Waste (VLLW) can be close to natural background radioactivity. This waste mainly consists of rubble (concrete, plaster and soil) and scrap metal (steel structures and piping) that has been very slightly contaminated. France is the first country in the world to consider all of this waste as radioactive waste and to dispose of it in a dedicated facility, the Industrial Grouping, Storage and Disposal Centre (Cires), in the Aube department.

Waste arising from dismantling

Very Low-Level Waste originates primarily from the dismantling of nuclear facilities, but also from conventional industries (such as the chemical and metallurgical sectors) that use naturally occurring radioactive materials.

It is also generated during the clean-up and rehabilitation of sites contaminated by radioactivity.

This waste is made up of:

  • 50% conventional industrial waste (scrap metal, plastics, etc.);
  • 40% inert waste (concrete, bricks, soil, etc.);
  • 10% special waste, consisting of materials such as sludge and ash.

Due to its very low level of radioactivity, this waste is generally regarded as non-radioactive in most countries. France, however, considers all of it to be radioactive waste.

Metallic waste originating from the dismantling of nuclear facilities
Neon tubes removed for disposal during the dismantling of nuclear facilities
Sheets, scrap metal, and metals from the dismantling of nuclear facilities
Given their very low level of radioactivity, VLLW (Very Low-Level Waste) is packaged primarily to facilitate handling and disposal. Once generated, it is placed in steel boxes, metal drums, or large plastic bags.
In France, this waste if disposed of in a dedicated facility for VLLW, the Industrial Grouping, Storage and Disposal Centre (Cires), located in the Aube department.

Did you know?

About 654 000 m3 of very low level waste are disposed of or intended to be disposed of in one of Andra's facilities (as of the end of 2022).

What Happens to This Waste?

Like all radioactive waste, Very Low-Level Waste is disposed of in dedicated facilities until its radioactivity has decayed over time. Given its very low level of radioactivity, the facility designed to receive this waste was built at the surface. Before disposal, the waste may first undergo treatment and is then packaged according to specific requirements.

Plastic and metallic waste is compacted to reduce its volume. Liquid waste, such as contaminated water or sludge, is solidified and stabilised.

Given the nature of this waste and its very low level of radioactivity, it is packaged in metal drums or in large fabric bags known as big bags, mainly to facilitate handling.

 

Low- and Intermediate-Level Short-Lived Waste (LILW-SL)

Low- and Intermediate-Level Short-Lived Waste (LILW-SL) mainly consists of materials used in activities related to nuclear installations, such as clothing, tools and filters. Because most of the radionuclides they contain are short-lived, this waste is generally compacted and packaged in metal or concrete containers before being disposed of in a facility specifically designed for this category of waste: the Aube Disposal Facility (CSA).

Clothing, Tools and Small Equipments

LILW-SL waste mainly originates from:

  • the operation and maintenance of nuclear industry facilities;
  • the activities of the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA).

But it also originates from:

  • research laboratories, hospitals and universities;
  • clean-up and dismantling operations.

This waste mainly consists of clothing, tools, gloves and filters.

The particularity of this waste is that most of the radioactive substances it contains are short-lived. Given its low to intermediate initial level of radioactivity, it no longer presents a significant hazard after approximately 300 years, due to the natural decay of radioactivity.

This waste also contains small quantities of long-lived radioactive substances. However, their concentration is strictly limited in order to allow disposal in surface facilities.

Equipment and protective clothing used in laboratories, nuclear facilities or conventional industries handling radioactive substances are classified as LILW-SL. They are packaged and subsequently disposed of at a dedicated facility in the Aube department.
Gloves, vinyl materials, cotton wipes and other items may become contaminated with short-lived radioactive substances during the operation and maintenance of nuclear facilities. They are collected, packaged and disposed of at a dedicated LILW-SL facility.
Gloves, vinyl materials, cotton wipes and other items may become contaminated with short-lived radioactive substances during the operation and maintenance of nuclear facilities. They are collected, packaged and disposed of at a dedicated LILW-SL facility.
Equipment used in research laboratories for handling radioactive substances is also segregated and managed through dedicated waste management routes.
In nuclear power plants, filters and cartridges are used to filter air discharged by ventilation systems. Once removed from service, they are managed as LILW-SL.
To prevent the dispersion of the radioactive substances they contain, LILW-SL is packaged in metal or concrete containers before disposal.

Did you know?

Approximately 989,000 m³ of Low- and Intermediate-Level Short-Lived Waste had been disposed of or was expected to be managed by Andra by the end of 2022.

What Happens to LILW-SL?

Like all radioactive waste, LILW-SL is intended for disposal in dedicated facilities designed for its characteristics. Because it contains only limited quantities of long-lived radionuclides, the facilities designed to receive it are built at the surface. Before disposal, the waste may first undergo treatment and is then packaged according to specific requirements.

Once generated, this waste may be compacted to reduce its volume or solidified if it is in liquid form. It is generally placed in a metal container and then encapsulated in concrete.,As a result, a typical LILW-SL package consists of approximately 15 to 20% radioactive waste and 80 to 85% encapsulation material.

 

Low-Level Long-Lived Waste (LLW-LL)

Low-Level Long-Lived Waste (LLW-LL) mainly consists of legacy waste or waste arising from past activities. It includes different types of waste, such as radium-bearing waste and graphite waste. The former mainly results from the use of naturally radioactive minerals, while the latter originates from France's first generation of nuclear power plants (Natural Uranium Graphite Gas reactors), which have now been shut down and are being dismantled.

Two Main Types of LLW-LL

Radium-bearing waste takes its name from the radium it contains. It mainly originates from the processing of minerals such as zircon and uranium ore. These minerals are used to extract rare earth elements for the manufacture of electronic components, catalytic converters and high-performance metallurgical products. Some of this waste also results from the clean-up of sites contaminated by radioactivity.

Graphite waste takes its name from the material it contains. It is generated during the dismantling of France's first-generation nuclear reactors, which operated during the 1960s. At the time, the fuel used in these reactors was surrounded by graphite sleeves, a highly pure form of carbon.

Other LLW-LL

Other types of LLW-LL include:

  • legacy radioactive objects manufactured during the interwar period, such as radium fountains and watches;
  • lightning conductors, smoke detectors and other devices containing radioactive substances.

For the most part, the production of these types of waste has already ceased or is expected to cease in the near future.

During the 1940s and 1950s, radium was used in the manufacture of watches and clocks. It was incorporated into the luminescent paint applied to dials and hands to make them visible in the dark.
Radioactive sources were once used in devices such as lightning conductors and smoke detectors. Today, these items are collected and managed through dedicated waste management routes.
The dismantling of France's nine first-generation nuclear reactors, commissioned in the 1960s, is currently underway. In these reactors, the nuclear fuel was surrounded by graphite, a form of carbon used to moderate the nuclear reaction.
Radium fountain dating from the interwar period. These devices contained a radium source used to irradiate drinking water or bath water in the home.
Radium-bearing waste often takes the form of rubble and residues. It originates from the processing of natural minerals, such as uranium ore and zircon, by conventional industries.

A Subsurface Disposal Facility

For several years, Andra has been studying the possibility of developing a subsurface disposal facility for LLW-LL. Pending the availability of such a facility, LLW-LL is safely stored in dedicated facilities located at or near the sites where it is generated.

 

Intermediate-Level Long-Lived Waste (ILW-LL)

Intermediate-Level Long-Lived Waste (ILW-LL) is mainly generated by the nuclear power industry. In France, most of this waste originates from the processing of fuel used in nuclear reactors. Due to its level of radioactivity and long lifetime, Andra is developing a deep geological disposal facility located in a clay formation approximately 500 metres underground.

Fuel used in today's nuclear reactors consists of uranium, sometimes combined with plutonium. Over time, this fuel becomes less efficient and is removed from reactors. It is then processed, mainly at the Orano La Hague facility, to recover materials that can be recycled. During this process, the metal structures surrounding the fuel assemblies are cut into small sections.

ILW-LL mainly consists of these metallic components (cladding hulls, end-pieces and structural elements).

It also includes residues resulting from the operation and maintenance of nuclear facilities, as well as from the manufacture of certain nuclear fuels, such as treatment residues and contaminated equipment.

Did you know?

Approximately 39,600 m³ of ILW-LL had been disposed of or was expected to be managed by Andra by the end of 2022.

During the processing of used nuclear fuel, the 264 metallic tubes that make up each fuel assembly are cut into short sections. Once the radioactive materials they contain have been removed, these metallic residues are recovered and make up the vast majority of ILW-LL.
To reduce their volume, metallic ILW-LL is compacted into pellets. Here, the process takes place in the compaction facility at Orano's La Hague site, where the waste is packaged shortly after it is generated.
Once compacted, several ILW-LL pellets are placed inside a stainless-steel package measuring approximately 1.3 metres in height and 43 centimetres in diameter.
ILW-LL also includes waste arising from the operation and maintenance of nuclear facilities. Examples include radioactive liquid effluents stored in tanks to concentrate their radioactivity into sludge, which is then mixed with bitumen.
Pending the development of a deep geological disposal facility, ILW-LL is safely stored in dedicated facilities located at the sites where it is generated.

What Happens to ILW-LL?

Like all radioactive waste, ILW-LL is intended for disposal in a facility specifically designed for its characteristics. Due to its long lifetime, ranging from several thousand to several hundred thousand years, and its level of radioactivity, this waste will be disposed of in Cigéo, a disposal facility located in a clay formation approximately 500 metres underground.

Before disposal, the waste is treated and packaged according to specific requirements.

To reduce its volume, a significant proportion of solid ILW-LL is compacted into pellets. These are then placed in concrete or metal waste packages.

To facilitate handling, transport, storage and disposal operations, four waste packages may subsequently be grouped together in a concrete container.

Pending the commissioning of Cigéo, ILW-LL is safely stored in dedicated facilities located at or near the sites where it is generated.

 

High-Level Waste (HLW)

High-Level Waste (HLW) is the most radioactive waste produced in France. Most of it originates from the nuclear power industry and consists of highly radioactive residues resulting from the processing of used nuclear fuel. This waste can remain radioactive for very long periods of time, up to several hundred thousand years. Its high level of radioactivity and long lifetime have led researchers and engineers to develop Cigéo, France's deep geological disposal facility project, designed to be located in a clay formation approximately 500 metres underground.

Residues from the Nuclear Industries

Fuel used in today's nuclear reactors consists of uranium, sometimes combined with plutonium. Over time, this fuel becomes less efficient and is removed from reactors. It is then processed, mainly at Orano's La Hague facility. This process makes it possible to recover materials, namely uranium and plutonium, that can be recycled for the manufacture of new nuclear fuel.

The non-recyclable residues generated during this process constitute HLW. They are the by-products of the nuclear reactions that take place within reactor fuel during operation. Although they represent only 3 to 5% of used nuclear fuel, they are highly radioactive.

Fuel used in nuclear reactors consists of assemblies containing 264 fuel rods. These rods are tubes approximately 4 metres long, filled with uranium pellets and, in some reactors, plutonium-bearing fuel pellets.
Uranium, in the form of pellets, is used as fuel in nuclear power plants. In some reactors, it is combined with plutonium. The processing of used fuel makes it possible to recover reusable uranium and plutonium for the manufacture of new fuel.
During processing, used nuclear fuel is dissolved in a chemical solution. Reusable materials are recovered, while the highly radioactive, non-recyclable residues remain stored in liquid form in dedicated tanks.
Glass is one of the oldest materials used by humankind. The glass selected for HLW packaging has been specifically designed for its durability and high containment performance. Each radionuclide is immobilised within the glass matrix.
Initially produced in liquid form, HLW is first calcined into a powder. This powder is then incorporated into molten glass, and the resulting mixture is poured directly into a stainless-steel canister.
A typical HLW canister contains approximately 400 kg of glass and 11 kg of waste. It measures around 1.3 metres in height and 43 centimetres in diameter.
HLW packages are stored in dedicated facilities at the sites where they are produced. Due to their high level of radioactivity, they are placed in ventilated storage wells that allow the heat they generate to be safely dissipated.

Did you know?

Approximately 4,420 m³ of HLW had been disposed of or was expected to be managed by Andra by the end of 2022.

What Happens to HLW?

Like all radioactive waste, HLW is intended for disposal in a facility designed for its characteristics. Given its long lifetime, which can extend to several hundred thousand years, and its high level of radioactivity, HLW, like ILW-LL, is intended for disposal in Cigéo, a deep geological disposal facility to be located in a clay formation approximately 500 metres underground.

Vitrified Waste

HLW is first treated and packaged according to specific requirements. The waste is calcined, producing a black powder, which is then immediately incorporated into molten glass. The resulting mixture is poured into a stainless-steel canister. Each canister contains approximately 400 kg of glass for 11 kg of HLW. The radioactivity of HLW is such that it generates significant heat, averaging around 350°C per canister. This heat gradually decreases over time as radioactivity naturally decays. Before disposal, HLW must therefore be stored for several decades until its temperature falls to approximately 90°C.

To facilitate handling, transport, storage and disposal operations, each canister may subsequently be placed inside a second steel overpack. Pending the commissioning of Cigéo, HLW is safely stored in dedicated facilities at the sites where it is produced, including La Hague (Orano), Marcoule and Cadarache (French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission facilities).